Juvenalian And Horatian Satire :: Satire Comedy LIterary Essays

Juvenalian and Horatian Satire "Satire is a sort of glass, wherein beholders do generally discover everybody's face but their own; which is the chief reason for that kind of reception it meets in the world, and that so very few are offended with it." Jonathan Swift (1667-1745), Anglo-Irish satirist. The Battle of the Books, Preface (written 1697; published 1704). Satire is known as the literary style which makes light of a subject, diminishing its importance by placing it in an amusing or scornful light. Unlike comedy, satire attempts to create humor by deriding its topic, as opposed to a topic that evokes laughter in itself. Satires attempt to give us a more humorous look at attitudes, advances, states of affairs, and in some cases ( as in Jonathan Swift's A Modest Proposal ) the entire human race. The least offensive form of satire is Horatian satire, the style used by Addison and Steele in their essays. A much more abrasive style is Juvenalian satire, as used by Jonathan Swift in the aforementioned essay A Modest Proposal. To better understand satire as a whole, and Horatian and Juvenalian satire in particular, these essays can provide for further comprehension than a simple definition of the style alone. Horatian satire is noted for its more pleasant and amusing nature. Unlike Juvenalian satire, it serves to make us laugh at human folly as opposed to holding our failures up for needling. In Steele's essay The Spectator's Club, a pub gathering is used to point out the quirks of the fictitious Sir Robert de Coverly and his friends. Roger de Coverly is an absolute character. His failure in an amorous pursuit have left him in the past, which is shown through his manner of dress, along with his somewhat dubious honor of justice of the quorum. This position entails such trying duties as explaining Acts to the commoners. Also present is a lawyer who is more versed in "Aristotle and Cognius" than in "Littleton and Coke"(Norton, 2193), indicative of lawyers more interested in sounding learned than being capable of practicing actual law. Near him, a wealthy merchant whose concerns lie mainly in the wealth of England and himself, and who views the ocean as his marketplace. Captain Sentry is an old military man well practiced in the art of false modesty, a trait he detests in others. Also there is a clergyman who is so frail that he would sooner wait until the Lord sees fit to smite him than get on with the business of leading his life.(Norton, 2192-2195). All of these characters present traits present in all

Differences Between Homogeneous Nucleation and Heterogeneous Nucleation

Newey and Weaver described nucleation as a process that must occur in a system, undergoing a phase transition, before the formation of another phase (Royce). This process is called homogeneous nucleation if it occurs away from any boundaries. On the other hand, heterogeneous nucleation takes place on a surface, interface, dislocation or other defect in the material. In addition, the latter type is favored because it requires a lower free energy change to form the initial stable nucleus where others can adhere resulting an increase in size (cited in Royce).During nucleation, the atoms are forming nano-sized solid clusters. In homogeneous nucleation, clustering occurs above the melting of the metal (Tm) turns back into the liquid state due to its stability on that phase while clustering below Tm can lead to crystallization-nuclei formation if its size reaches stability against melting (Iqbal 3). High solid-liquid interface surface energy is a thermodynamic hindrance in nucleation. Due to this energy barrier, foreign materials are added to serve as nucleation sites. These nucleation sites have lower surface energy, thus, increases the nucleation rate.The stable nuclei then grow into an equiaxed and finer grain structure (Iqbal 3). Moreover, nucleation is a kinetic process wherein atoms of the melted metal form into clusters within the liquid medium at solidification temperature (Iqbal 9). These clusters act as crystallization nuclei where other atoms adhere and solidify. The rate of nucleation process is directly affected by the difference between the equilibrium melting temperature (Tm) and the freezing temperature (Tf) or undercooling. As a rule of thumb, a higher undercooling yields higher nucleation rate. Nucleation MechanismBen Best discussed that mixtures of some metals, like copper and nickel, both in liquid and solid states are highly soluble in all given concentration. Since both copper and nickel have similar crystal structures and atomic radii, in the c ooling process the particles formed have properties imparted by both of these metals. This metal mixture type is called isomorphous. In contrast to this, the mixture of lead and tin is eutectic because of partial solubility of these metals in the solid state. Unlike copper and nickel, lead and tin have different crystal structures and atomic radii.This is the reason why the solid lead-tin alloy can only consist of 2. 5% lead and 19. 2% tin their maximum composition by weight. In addition, a eutectic mixture has composition that completely liquefies at eutectic temperature. For lead-tin mixture, the eutectic composition is 61. 9% that has a eutectic temperature of 183 ºC. This property makes lead-tin mixture as a good soldering agent. Metals typically solidify as crystals at a temperature lower than its melting temperature (Best). The difference in melting and solidification temperatures is called as the maximum undercooling.This undercooling is the effect of pure metal crystalliza tion. During the crystallization process, the nucleation of small particles or crystallization nuclei occurs first then the adherence of other particles on these nuclei follows. As such, other surrounding particles tend to dissolve it back into the liquid phase. Successful fusion into the crystal releases heat which causes other adjacent atoms to dissolve. This means that the high fusion of a metal reflects its tendency for a high solidification temperature and maximum undercooling (Best).The energy affects the dissolution process with respect to the surface area of the nucleus while energy variation favoring nucleus growth is a factor of volume proportion (Best). Surface area varies with the square of the radius, whereas volume varies with the cube of the radius. Thus, a large crystal is not susceptible to surface dissolution. In addition, a metal at a specific temperature has a critical radius size. Radius bigger than the critical radius tend to increase in size while smaller radi us is susceptible to dissolution.Nonetheless, lower temperature facilitates the attainment of the critical radius (Best). Further, crystallization may occur in less undercooling if a higher melting point metal with similar crystal structure to and insoluble at the melting temperature of the original metal is added (Best). The crystal growth around these insoluble nuclei is referred to as heterogeneous nucleation. In heterogeneous nucleation, specific sites in a material catalyze the nucleation process through the reduction of the critical free energy of nucleation (?Gc) (Balluffi, Allen, and Carter 477).It is always in kinetic competition with homogeneous nucleation wherein the faster rate mechanism prevails. The lower value of ?Gc supports heterogeneous nucleation while the greater number of potential nucleation sites favors homogeneous nucleation. Moreover, by means of the nucleation rate expressed as J = Z ßc N exp[-?Gc /(kT )], regimes of temperature, supersaturation, relativ e interfacial energies, and microstructure in which one nucleation mechanism occurs can be predicted.When a small particle deposits on the grain boundaries, edges or corners of a polycrystalline microstructures such as grain boundaries, edges or corners, these crystal imperfections will be eliminated with an associated free-energy decrease lowering ?Gc (Balluffi, Allen, and Carter 477). Solidification in Metals The solidification of metals and their alloys starts when a welded small portion of metal melts and resolidifies (â€Å"Phase Transformation†). Homogeneous nucleation occurs when there are no other chemical species involved in a nucleation process.For instance when a pure liquid metal is slowly cooled below its equilibrium m freezing temperature to a sufficient degree numerous homogeneous nuclei are created by slow-moving atoms bonding together in a crystalline form. While the involvement of other chemical species to favor nucleation results to heterogeneous nucleation . Solidification is a crucial stage in metallurgical processes such as in ingot casting, continuous casting, squeeze casting, pressure casting, atomization (Phanikumar and Chattopadhyay 25).This is also an important stage in secondary manufacturing processes such as welding, soldering, brazing, cladding and sintering. For the properties of the product largely depend on the mechanical properties and the microstructure of the different phases. The microstructure of the products on the other hand, is affected by thermal and solutal processing conditions and thermodynamic and kinetics factors of the materials (Phanikumar and Chattopadhyay 25). Solidification involves heat extraction through diffusion and convection processes, and solid-liquid interface movement.In addition, the microstructure solidification is a complex process affected by the rate of solidification (v), temperature gradient (G), composition (C) and kinetics factors such as phase equilibrium reactions, nucleation and gr owth, and crystallographic constraints (Phanikumar and Chattopadhyay 25). Solidification and Mechanical Properties Industrial treatments such as rolling or forging, alloying and thermal treatment are done to metals to strengthen their mechanical properties.For instance, pure aluminum has a tensile strength of around 13,000 pounds per square inch (psi), however, by cold-working its strength is approximately doubled. This can also be done by adding alloying metals such as manganese, silicon, copper, magnesium and zinc. Similarly, heat treatment makes the tensile strength of aluminum over 100, 000 psi (â€Å"Property Modification† n. p. ). Plastic or permanent deformation of crystalline materials is largely affected by the tendency of dislocation within the material. Thus, restraining the dislocation movement improves its strength.This is done by controlling the grain size, strain hardening, and alloying (â€Å"Strengthening/Hardening Mechanisms†). In the material science engineering, a grain is a crystal with unsmooth faces due to the deferred growth in contact with a boundary (â€Å"Solidification†). The grain boundary is the interface between grains. Atoms in this region are disordered, hence, no crystalline structure. The different orientation of adjacent grains within the material, the boundary between grains hinders the dislocation movement and the resulting slip.The solidification rate controls the size and number of grains. Smaller grains denote shorter distances between atoms that can move in a slip plane, thus, improving the strength of the material (â€Å"Strengthening/Hardening Mechanisms†). The improvement of metallic strength is done through strain or work hardening or cold-working. In plastic deformation of metals, the movement of dislocations produces additional dislocations (â€Å"Strengthening/Hardening Mechanisms†). These dislocations interact, pin or tangle resulting to decline in dislocations movement and ca uses material strengthening.This strengthening is called as cold-working for the occurrence of plastic deformation is at low temperature which impedes atom movements. However, cold-working process reduces the ductility of metals. On the other hand, when the process is done at higher temperature, the atoms rearrange to improve material strength (â€Å"Strengthening/Hardening Mechanisms†). Since cold-working process reduces ductility, thermal or heat treatment is used to remove its effect. The strengthening gained through the cold-working will be lost if the strain hardened materials are exposed at higher temperatures.Recovery, re-crystallization, and grain growth may occur during the heat treatment (â€Å"Strengthening/Hardening Mechanisms†). Nucleation and Mechanical Properties The number of nucleation sites for the freezing metal affects the grain structure of the solid metal product. Few number of nucleation sites means smaller number of crystallization nuclei, hence , large-grain or coarse structure results. An increase in nucleation site numbers, on the other hand, yields fine-grain structure because a lot of crystallization nuclei are available for the dissolve phase attach and solidify.Fine grain structure is the most desired product for strength and uniformity in metal production (Poster and Easterling 125). An ideal crystal has a perfect crystalline structure and characterized by a regular repetitive lattice in any space direction. However, crystalline materials have crystallographic defects. Minor crystal defect may impart significant metallic properties. The conductivity of silicon, for instance, is doubled when it is contaminated with 10-8 percent mass of boron (Tisza 107).There are several properties that can be identified based on the ideal lattice structure such as thermal and electrical conductivities, and specific heat. These are called as structure-insensitive properties. However, there are structure-sensitive properties such as m echanical properties that are hardly predicted on the basis of ideal crystal structure. The discrepancy between the ideal and real crystal structures result to the large differences in theoretical and experimental computation of properties (Tisza 107).

Definitions and Examples of Isoglosses in Linguistics

An isogloss is a geographical boundary line marking the area in which a distinctive linguistic feature commonly occurs. Adjective: isoglossal or isoglossic. Also known as  heterogloss.  From the Greek, similar or equal tongue. Pronounced  I-se-glos. This linguistic feature may be phonological (e.g., the pronunciation of a vowel), lexical (the use of a word), or some other aspect of language.   Major divisions between dialects are marked by bundles of isoglosses. Examples and Observations [S]peakers in southern Pennsylvania say bucket, and those in the north part of the state say pail. [The line of demarcation between the two] is called an isogloss. Dialect areas are determined by large bundles of such isoglosses.Several noteworthy projects have been devoted to mapping the features and distribution of dialects across the United States, including Frederic Cassidys Dictionary of American Regional English [DARE] (begun in the 1960s and [completed in 2013]), and William Labov, Sharon Ash, and Charles Bobergs The Atlas of North American English (ANAE), published in 2005.Regional DialectsEnglish is made up of a number of regional dialects... Linguists can identify the main characteristics of different regions, and the isoglosses establish boundaries which group together non-standard dialect forms with similar distinctive linguistic features. Inevitably, there are some overlaps--although non-standard lexis tends to be located in specific regions, non-standard grammatical fea tures are similar across boundaries.Drawing an Optimal Isogloss:  The task of drawing an optimal isogloss has five stages:Selecting a linguistic feature that will be used to classify and define a regional dialect.Specifying a binary division of that feature or a combination of binary features.Drawing an isogloss for that division of the feature, using the procedures described below.Measuring the consistency and homogeneity of the isogloss by the measures to be described below.Recycling through steps 1-4 to find the definition of the feature that maximizes consistency or homogeneity.Focal Areas and Relic AreasIsoglosses can also show that a particular set of linguistic features appears to be spreading from one location, a focal area, into neighboring locations. In the 1930s and 1940s Boston and Charleston were the two focal areas for the temporary spread of r-lessness in the eastern United States. Alternatively, a particular area, a relic area, may show characteristics of being una ffected by changes spreading out from one or more neighboring areas. Places like London and Boston are obviously focal areas; places like Marthas Vineyard--it remained r-pronouncing in the 1930s and 1940s even as Boston dropped the pronunciation--in New England and Devon in the extreme southwest of England are relic areas.Kinds of Linguistic FeaturesFurther distinctions can be made in terms of the kind of linguistic feature being isolated: an isophone is a line drawn to mark the limits of a phonological feature; an isomorph marks the limits of a morphological feature; an isolex marks the limits of a lexical item; an isoseme marks the limits of a semantic feature (as when lexical items of the same phonological form take on different meanings in different areas).The Canadian Shift IsoglossA given region may have optimal conditions for a given sound change, which may affect almost all speakers. This is the case with the Canadian Shift, involving a retraction of /e/ and /ae/ . . .; it i s especially favored in Canada because the low back merger that triggers the shift takes place well to the back of the vowel space for almost everyone. Homogeneity for the Canadian Shift isogloss, which stops at the Canadian border, is .84 (21 of the 25 speakers within the isogloss). But the same process takes place occasionally throughout other areas of low back merger in the U.S., so that consistency for the Canadian isogloss is only .34. Outside of Canada, the instances of this phenomenon are scattered throughout a much larger population, and leakage is only .10. Homogeneity is the crucial measure for the dynamics of the Canadian vowel system. Sources Kristin Denham and Anne Lobeck,  Linguistics for Everyone: An Introduction. Wadsworth, 2010Sara Thorne,  Mastering Advanced English Language, 2nd ed. Palgrave Macmillan, 2008William Labov, Sharon Ash, and Charles Boberg,  The Atlas of North American English: Phonetics, Phonology, and Sound Change. Mouton de Gruyter, 2005Ronald Wardhaugh,  An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 6th ed. Wiley-Blackwell, 2010David Crystal,  A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, 4th ed. Blackwell, 1997William Labov, Sharon Ash, and Charles Boberg,  The Atlas of North American English: Phonetics, Phonology, and Sound Change. Mouton de Gruyter, 2005